Safely locked away in the basement of the KNIR library, a collection of over 500 rare books lay dormant. On one of the bottom shelves a golden reverberation catches the eye, coming from the spines of Histoire du Mobilier (1876), Histoire de la Gravure (1880) and Histoire de la Tapisserie (1886). All three books are embellished with a design, debossed in gold on a red background. Although these books are already more than a hundred years old, compared to the other rare books they are the ‘new kids on the block’ or better said the bookshelf. These books are the future rare books of the KNIR library.


All that glitters
Industrialization and commercialization went hand in hand in nineteenth century France. Both developments influenced many industries, including the book industry. There were new innovations and books were produced at lower cost and spread and read on a large scale. As a response to the cheaper novels, some publishers started with the distribution of more luxurious editions. Like the three nineteenth century books in the rare book collection of the KNIR library, these luxury books often had gilded page edges and embellished book covers. Besides that, the similar titles of the three books suggest that they are somehow related to each other. The question is: how? Starting from the book titles, it can be said that all three books are histoires. They give a historical overview on a specific topic, for example tapestry or engravings. However, there is also some discrepancy here, for instance the fact that each book has a different author and there were two different publishers involved. Two of the books were published by ‘Hachette’ in Paris and one was published in Tours by ‘Alfred Mame et fils’. These books were also published over a period of ten years. 




The answer is right in front of you
In many cases the metaphorical saying ‘do not judge a book by its cover’ is true, though in this case we should neglect this saying. Aside from the fact that these are the original book covers, they also have a hidden clue in them which is the answer to what these three books have in common. 

'A. Souze' is the clue: this name can be found on each of the book covers, although it is not something you will see at first glance. On Histoire de la Gravure this name can be found on the bottom part on the left, next to the publisher name ‘Hachette et Cie, Paris’. The most hidden one is on Histoire de la Tapisserie, where the name is signed in the curtain. The last one can be found on the right bottom corner of Histoire du Mobilier. So who was this A. Souze?


A. Souze was the designer of each of these three book covers. This person must have read the books on forehand or had a good knowledge about the content of these books, because each of these covers can be seen as a visual summary. Besides this person’s name we do not know anything about him or her, other than the fact that these cover designs are little artworks in themselves that did not lose their enchanting charm over time.


There is another name on the bottom left corner of Histoire du Mobilier: ‘Engel Rel’. ’Rel’ is the abbreviation for the French word ‘relieur’, which means bookbinder. Jean Engel (1800-1892) was a well-known bookbinder and one of the initiators of the industrial bookbinding in France. A quite amusing side note is the fact that his biggest rival in France was no one other than Alfred Mame (1811-1883), the publisher of Histoire de la Tapisserie. So, A. Souze made book cover designs for two rival companies.

Before there was photography
Let’s take a closer look at Histoire du Mobilier, written by Albert Jacquemart (1808-1875) and the oldest one of these three future rare books. Albert Jacquemart was an accomplished French art historian who had a special interest in (oriental) ceramics. Besides his scientific background he was also an amateur artist who taught his son Jules-Ferdinand Jacquemart(1837-1880) the tricks of the etching trade. Jules-Ferdinand became one of the best etchers of the second half of nineteenth century France. Before the widespread use of photography, there were printmakers. One of these professional printmakers was Jules-Ferdinand, who made etches of fine art objects and paintings. At first he was commissioned by his own father and later on even by professional institutes such as The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. 

An etch from a vase made by Jules-Ferdinand Jacquemart, Histoire du Mobilier, ca. 1876.

Histoire du Mobilier was the last ‘Jacquemart collaboration’, because Albert Jacquemart passed away before the book was even published. In the preface of the book the following sentence describes their relationship: ‘a privileged family in which the son has been able to engrave so perfectly what the father knew so well how to describe’. Unfortunately, the taste for reproductive prints diminished in the twentieth century and along with that the works and reputation of Jules-Ferdinand Jacquemart disappeared into oblivion.

Future gems
In the book cover design of Histoire du Mobilier is a Latin motto incorporated: ‘Artis Mille Species Ars Una’, meaning there is only one art but a thousand forms. A motto that seems suitable for this book because of the content, but it is also relevant on another level. In fact this book was written by an accomplished art historian, it contains the prints of his gifted son and it is captured in a gold debossed book cover which was designed by a skillful artist. They were all artists, but each in their own way. This is specifically true regarding Histoire du Mobilier, but in general each of these three future rare books should be seen as a ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’, and they deserve to be treasured as the future ‘gems’ of the KNIR library. Eline Kortekaas

Bibliography

As anyone who has ever been to Rome will tell you, it is almost impossible these days to walk around the city without seeing tourists peering at their guidebooks and street vendors trying to sell replicas of the most important monuments and drawings of the famous sights. This experience, however, has been the reality of Rome for many centuries, especially from the emergence of the Grand Tour in the late seventeenth century onwards. And although guidebooks and souvenirs already existed in some way before this, the surge of Grand Tourists coming to Rome provided an enormous stimulus for the development of both. An important role in this was played by the vedute, illustrations, often engravings, of modern and ancient sights.

The importance of vedute
These vedute became immensely popular and sought after as master works in their own right and, because of this, indirectly helped establish what monuments were important for tourists to see in the city: the famous sights we still visit to this day. They influenced the itinerary of the Grand Tour, but vice versa the Grand Tour also influenced the success of vedute. The large number of people travelling to and from Rome for pleasure naturally caused an increase in the demand for illustrations of the city and her sights and provided a means for their dissemination into other parts of the continent. As a result of this international popularity vedute were made and printed all over Europe, especially northern Europe.

People who are interested in old city maps, can take pleasure in browsing through KNIR's cartography collection. This library contains some of the most splendid atlases, like Braun and Hogenberg's famous Civitates Orbis Terrarum from 1574, which is the largest compilation of town maps and illustrations ever published. Another old map one can admire at the KNIR library, is the Coup d'œil général sur la France by Brion de la Tour from 1765, containing several maps of ancient and contemporary France. Being situated in Rome, the KNIR unsurprisingly possesses maps of Italy as well. A beautiful example of a town map is A new mapp of Rome shewing its antient and present scituation from 1721 by John Senex. Italy as a whole is represented at the KNIR library by Blaeu's Het Nieuwe Stede Boek van geheel Italië [The new town atlas of entire Italy], from 1704-1705, which is a work in four parts presenting maps of a large number of towns and illustrations of monuments and buildings in Italy. This last mentioned atlas by Blaeu is of special interest here, since it is published by a Dutch cartographer for a Dutch public and therefore embodies the historical bonds between Italy and the Netherlands.

The firm Blaeu
Since the beginning of the 16th century, European publishers and booksellers found a new and lucrative market in the production and sale of maps. By the end of the century, one could come across maps in books or wall maps in many households. Proof of this can be found on the background of De soldaat en het lachende meisje [Officer and Laughing Girl], a painting by Vermeer from 1657, where Blaeu's map of Holland and West-Friesland is used as wall decoration.

Johannes Vermeer. De soldaat en het lachende meisje. 1657. Oil on canvas. The Frick Collection, New York.

In the 17th century, thanks to its primary position in the world trade and in the production of books, the city of Amsterdam was able to position itself as the center of the European cartography. Within this field, three generations of Blaeu cartographers occupied a leading role. The family business was first started by the Amsterdam based Willem Blaeu. From his company at the Korte Nieuwendijk, which he bought in 1598 or 1599, he sold globes, maps and some literature, like poetry from his good friend Joost van denVondel. At first, Blaeu was not interested in maps of countries and cities, as his focus lay on the sea, probably because of the increased overseas trade. In addition to the sea maps, one could also buy nautical and astronomical instruments at Blaeu's firm.

As the popularity of maps increased, Blaeu might have spotted a hole in the market. From 1605 on, he started producing and selling land and town maps alongside his sea maps. At that time, the firm had moved to the Damrak, where multiple cartographers were situated. His next door neighbours, Jacob Aertsz. and Johannes Janssonius, became his biggest rivals, as they all wanted to sell their goods. As often is the case, this competition led to the printing of very luxurious and expensive editions, and they kept on trying to outdo each other. Apparently, originality was not much of a criterion at that time. Blaeu's first atlas, published in 1630, namely contained maps which he copied from one of his competitors. The desire to publish was seemingly bigger than the desire to provide the buyers accurate maps.

The culmination of all this rivalry was the Atlas Maior, published by Blaeu in 1662. This collection consisted of eleven huge folios, and contained some 600 maps in total. The engravings are also remarkable and worth studying, especially when we consider that they were all coloured by hand. The production of this immense work was made possible through the expansion of the company. Already in the 1620's, Willems son Joan started to work at the firm alongside his father. After the latters death in 1638, Joan took over the company after his father and continued its production until the year of 1672. This Catastrophic Year in Dutch history also turned out to be catastrophic for the Blaeu business. In that year, due to a fire, their printing office, including all maps, presses and books, was completely burned down. The business never fully recovered from the blow and ceased to exist shortly after.

The Blaeu Press
In 1637, the firm had moved to the Bloemgracht, were there reportedly were nine flatbed presses, six intaglio presses and a type foundry. Blaeu didn't make paper, but bought large quantities from a paper mill where they made good-quality sheets. The flatbed presses were probably made by Willem Blaeu himself, as he in the beginning of the 17th century developed a new printing press which was better to work with. Earlier, Blaeu had worked with the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe for a couple of months and learned how to make new astronomical and nautical instruments. This technical experience made him the right person to make modifications to the press. The essence of this new press was a counterweight that made the platen rise automatically. He also made the press heavier, so that the platen would spread pressure evenly and make a more even impression. All in all, printing became easier, better and faster. It is likely that these developments led to a speed of one printed sheet every twenty seconds, which means that workmen could produce some 2500 sheets a day, as their working days lasted twelve to sixteen hours.

Only the French continued to use their own Lyons presses, but in the rest of Europe, the Blaeu press became quite popular from 1620 on. Apparently, this press was so high-tech and of such good quality, that it remained unaltered for almost 300 years.

Interior of a paper mill at Fabriano, a city famous for its high-quality paper. On the right, we can see the trip-hammers that pound the pulp; in the middle, a man is screening the beaten pulp through a sieve; on the left, we see the newly formed sheets being pressed and dried.

Blaeu's and Mortier's town maps of Italy
In 1663, three volumes of town maps of Italy were printed at the Bloemgracht, called Theatrum civitatum et admirandorum Italiæ, which covered the Papal States, Rome, and the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. Joans intention was to publish ten volumes in total on Italian cities and the monuments in Rome, but he never got round to this plan. The volumes consisted of maps and copper engravings of townscapes, monuments and landscapes. These engravings were made by some of the best engravers of Amsterdam, such as Romein de Hooghe (1645-1708) and Jan Luyken (1649-1712). The originals were printed in Latin, but a Dutch and French edition, printed by Adriaan Moetjens in The Hague, followed in the next decades. In 1682, Joans sons published two other volumes that covered Piemonte and Savoy.

A couple of decades later, the Amsterdam based printer and publisher Pieter Mortier laid his hands on most of Blaeu's copper plates with illustrations from the town maps. Mortier then compiled a whole new atlas in four parts, called Het Nieuw Stede Boek van geheel Italie, printed in 1704-1705. This edition, present in the collection of the KNIR Library, starts with an introduction by Mortier, where it becomes clear that he builds on Blaeu's atlas and tries to improve it. Especially in his volume on Rome, Mortier has a different approach than Blaeu. While the latter focused solely on ancient Rome, the former includes contemporary Rome as well, making the city more recognizable for travelers who consulted the atlas. Other than Blaeu's atlases, which were only published in Latin at first, Mortier immediately published his edition of the atlas in three languages, namely Dutch, French and Latin, creating a large area of distribution for his goods.

Besides from the expansion from three to four parts, which now consisted of Northern Italy, the Papal States, the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily and finally Rome, Mortier also retouched many of the engravings and put his name on most of them. He created new engravings himself as well. While most of the engravings are remarkably splendid, they may be less striking than those in Blaeu's originals, since they were hand-coloured and Mortier's are monochrome. Nevertheless, Het Nieuwe Stede Boek van geheel Italie is very appealing to the eye. The books are very well structured, making them easy to use. Every volume begins with a general description of the area and a description of all plates, followed by an index, which was a modern feature at the time. After the index come the plates, which are all numbered, so they can be easily found. The first volume also contains an introduction and a table which converts Italian measures to Dutch. Another aspect which contributes to the readability, is the magnificent typography. The descriptions, containing a fair amount of text, are divided into two columns, while each section has its own headline. Moreover, each page has a page number and a header on the top of the page. The busy reader could also make use of the printed notes in the margins, which contain several key words that give a quick indication of the contents.

Stories on the foreground
Almost as interesting as the maps as a whole, are the scenes on the foreground of every illustration. At first glance, they do not seem to be related to the maps, but are rather added randomly to fill up and enrich the borders. However, in some cases the scenery can be read as some sort of itinerary. We often encounter travelers by foot, horse, boat or carriage being shown the way by local citizens, often farmers. They then point at the city depicted on the map. These scenes show how the books should be used, namely as a travel guide. By the end of volume four, the engraving of St. Peter's Basilica shows a group getting a guided tour through the building, and the illustration of the Forum Romanum depicts tourists examining the monuments, pointing to them and discussing them.

A guided tour through St. Peter's Basilica, Rome.

People chatting and looking at ruins at the Campo Vaccino (Forum Romanum), Rome.

The scenes can also be related to the city presented in another way, namely historical or cultural. The map of Pavia for example, contains a battle between two camps, depicting the Battle of Pavia in 1525. Also the naval Battle of Orbetello in 1646 is presented on that city's map, giving the reader a little education on the history of the city. Through the foreground scenes, one could also learn something about the area and local uses, like the paper mill at Fabriano or the almond tree at Terracina. Fabriano was and is famous for its excellent paper, while Terracina grew a lot of almond trees.

Almond picking at Terracina.

Although the maps may be outdated by now, these scenes are one of the reasons why Blaeu's town atlas could and should still be admired. It's no wonder that the KNIR Library is proud to have these unique objects in its collection, willing to show them to any interested visitor. M.I. Landheer

BLAEU
Joan Blaeu [Het Nieuwe Stede Boek van geheel Italie] Het Nieuwe Stede Boek van Italie, ofte naauwkeurige beschryving van allen deszelfs steden, paleyzen, kerken, &c. Nevens de Land-Kaarten van alle deszelfs Provincien. (imp. 'T Amsterdam. Door den Arbeid van Pieter Mortier, Boekverkooper. M D C C IV-V. Met Privilegie.).
4 parts in 3 Volumes:
I: Het Eerste Deel. Inhoudende, Lombardye, te weeten, de Republyk van Genua. De Hertogdommen van Milane, Parma, Modena, en Mantua. De Republyk van Venetie, Luka, En het Groot Hertogdom van Toskane.
2°, [4] - 22 – [78 engravings]
II: Het Tweede Deel. Inhoudende, den Kerkelyken Staat.
2°, 14 – [75 engravings]
III: Het Derde Deel. Inhoudende, het Koninkrijk van Napels en van Sicilie.
2°, 12 – [37 engravings]
IV: Het Vierde Deel. Inhoudende, De Amphitheaters, Theaters, Schouwburge, Zegenboogen, Tempels, Piramide, Graafstede, Obeliscus, Kerken, Paleizen, &c.
2°, 17 – [79 engravings]
Rome, Library Koninklijk Nederlands Instituut Rome, DR140 - 142

Bibliography
Febvre, Lucien and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800.
         Trans. David Gerard. London: NLB, 1976.
Haitsma Mulier, E.O.G. "De eerste Hollandse stadsbeschrijvingen uit de zeventiende eeuw." De
         Zeventiende Eeuw 9 (1993): 97-111.
Keuning, J. Willem Jansz. Blaeu: A Biography and History of His Work as a Cartographer and
         Publisher. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1973.
Koeman, Cornelis. "Life and Works of Willem Janszoon Blaeu. New Contributions to the Study of
         Blaeu, Made During the Last Hundred Years." Imago Mundi 26 (1972): 9-16.
Moorman, Gloria. "Discovering Rome through Joan Blaeu's Admiranda Urbis Romae: The Creation
          of the Town Atlas of Rome (Amsterdam, 1663) in the Light of Italian-Dutch Relationships in
          the Seventeenth Century." MA thesis. Leiden: University of Leiden, 2014.
Thoren, Victor E. and John Robert Christianson. The Lord of Uraniborg: A Biography of Tycho
          Brahe. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Try to imagine an underground network of more than 3 ha, with a labyrinth of corridors that stretches over 4,5 kilometers long on three different levels. It is dark and quiet. The walls around you are mostly bare, with an occasional decorated niche. Carved out in these walls are rectangular spaces, multiple above one another, more than 20.000 in total. Now imagine each one of these spaces to be a burial room. Welcome to the ancient Christian catacombs of Rome, one of the most interesting and intriguing remains of early Christianity in Europe.

From Rome to Arnhem
For centuries the catacombs of Rome have sparked the imagination of people. This reached a new height in the sixteenth century when they were rediscovered after having been mostly forgotten during the Middle Ages. The first and most important book on the catacombs was written by Antionia Bosio: Roma Subterranea. Bosio’s book, published in 1634, immediately became popular, but alas for most people it was written in Italian. Paolo Aringhi therefore decided to translate the book into Latin, making it a lot easier to spread all over Europe. This strategy worked: the book made it as far as the small Dutch Republic, where it was reprinted in Arnhem by Johan Frederik Hagen.

Above the original translation into Latin by Paolo Aringhi, below the small copy made in the Dutch Republic. If you look closely, you will see 'Arnhemiae' (Arnhem) right under the publisher's mark.

It seems quite strange that such a book, written in Catholic powerhouse Rome, could be spread in the Dutch Republic. After all, the Republic during this period is known for its Protestant character, allowing only the Calvinist religion in public. However, the city of Arnhem was actually quite a logical location for the publication of Bosio's work. Arnhem was located near the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, close to a few Catholic principalities and far from the Protestant bastions of Holland and Zeeland.


Both the Latin originals by Aringhi and the reprint from Arnhem have been kept at the library of the KNIR. Comparing the two copies will show how the originals were altered to fit the interests of the Dutch public.

Publishing for the Dutch
The most visible of the alterations is the one in size. Whereas the Latin originals by Aringhi are almost as big as an adult’s upper body, the book from Arnhem is pocket size, not even 15 centimeters in height. This suggests that the purpose of this reproduction was not to have a book you could show off, or to put in your study. The purpose was probably more that of a guide book, something the reader could easily bring along when visiting Rome.

This purpose becomes even more evident when one looks at the contents of the book. The printer has been quite selective in which parts he did and did not take over from the Latin version. This is not unusual: in early modern Europe, copyright as we know it did not exist. This meant that each writer or book printer was free to take over whole texts, parts of texts, or as in this case, the title with only parts of the original text. Johan Hagen therefore decided to take only the parts he considered interesting to his audience.

This means that instead of the six books of the original, the Dutch copy only has three. Hagen decided to leave out the first, fifth and sixth book. These books are all concentrated on what we can call background information, such as burial rituals, different types of martyrs and iconography. The parts he kept, books two, three and four, all contain locations and descriptions of many different catacombs. In most cases there is also a short summary of the stories of the martyrs buried in these catacombs. Striking is that Hagen left out the first four chapters of book two, thereby starting with the chapter on the martyrdom and burial of St. Peter, the first pope.

On top of that, Hagen also made some additions to his own reproduction that are not found in the original, such as an index of images, a catholic calendar and even a foldable map of the city, including large premises outside the city walls. Thus a traveler would not only be able to find his way inside the city, but he would also be able to find the catacombs, which are located outside the walls. When it comes to decoration, Hagen has been quite modest. Apart from the exquisite frontispiece he copied less than half of the original illustrations. This in combination with the small size of the copy from Arnhem suggests that Hagen aimed to keep the book at a relatively low price, making it also accessible for people with more moderate means.

Hagen's map of Rome unfolded. On the left you can still see part of Hagen's small copy. It rests upon the much larger original Latin copy by Aringhi.

Reconnecting
It is evident that Hagen had a very clear purpose with reprinting the Roma Subterranea, which can be best explained by putting the book in a religious context. Bosio wrote his work in the period of the Counter-Reformation, a movement which aimed to reform the Catholic Church. This was both a reaction to the Protestant reformation as well as a reform movement from within the church. The ancient catacombs directly connected Rome, capital of the Catholics, to the first true Christians, such as the apostles Peter and Paul and the martyrs. Although it was not Bosio’s aim, the Roma Subterranea became a powerful tool during the period of Counter-Reformation. Hagen clearly exploited this, as did many others. He copied the title of the book, which had a certain authority, but changed the content. By doing so, he made a sort of a travel guide to the Roman catacombs. People who were interested could travel to Rome and use this book to see the foundations of ‘true Christianity’ in this city.

The Roma Subterranea clearly shows the seventeenth-century connections between Rome and the Dutch Republic. As is the case today, people were fascinated by these vast ancient burial places and wanted to learn more about them. For Catholics in the Dutch Republic they must have been extra special, because the existence of the catacombs confirmed the foundations of their beliefs. Although Rome and Arnhem were far apart, the people wanted to feel connected. By reprinting Roma Subterranea, Hagen brought Dutch Catholics closer to Rome. Lianne van Valen

The famous frontispiece of Roma Subterranea. It originates from Antonio Bosio's first work and has been copied in every version and translation since.

ARINGHI
Paolo Aringhi [Roma Subterranea] Roma Subterranea Novissima in qua post Antonivm Bosivm antesignanvm, IO, Severanvm congreg. oratorii presbyter, et celebres alios scriptores antiqva christianorum et praecipue martyrvm coemeteria, titvli, monimenta, epitaphia, incriptiones, ac nobiliora sanctorvm sepvlchra sex libris distincta illustrantvr et qvuamplvrimae res ecclesiasticae iconibvs graphice describuntur, ac multiplici tum sacra, tum profana erudition declantur. Opera en studio Pauli Aringhi romani congreg. eiusdem presbyteri cum duplice Indice, Capitum & Rerum locupletissimo. (Romae M D C L I. Expensis Blasii Diuerini & Zanobii Masotti Bibliopolarum. Typis Vitalis Mascardi. Superiorum permissu)
2 volumes:
I: 2°, 17-626-29
II: 2°, 7-712-30
Rome, Library Koninklijk Nederlands Instituut Rome, DRMR145-146

ARINGHI/HAGEN
Paolo Aringhi [Roma Subterranea] Roma subterranea novissima, in qva antiqua christianorum et praecipue martyrum coemeteria, tituli, monimenta, epitaphia, inscriptions ac nobiliora sancrorum sepulchral, tridus libris distinct, Fideli Ennaratione partier ac Graphicis Iconibus, ceu gemina face illustrantur; Plurimaeque inde Res Ecclesiasticae declarantur; ex absolutissimo Opere Pauli Aringhi in hanc portatilem formam concinnata, cum Indice Capitum & Rerum exactissimo (Arnhemiae, apud Joan. Fridericum Hagium, Anno M DC LXXI)
8°, 22-630-29
Rome, Library Koninklijk Nederlands Instituut Rome, DR84

Bibliography
Fiocchi Nicolai, Vincenzo. The Christian Catacombs of Rome; History, Decoration, Inscriptions.
          Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 1999.
Rutgers, Leonard.V. ‘Cemeteries and Catacombs.’ The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome.
          Ed. P.P.M. Erdkamp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. 497-521.
Blanchard, Philip. ‘A Mass Grave from the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus in Rome,
          Second-Third century AD’ Antiquity 81 (2007): 989-998.
Rutgers Leonard.V. Subterranean Rome; in Search of the Roots of Christianity in the Catacombs of the
          Eternal City. Leuven: Peeters, 2000.